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Gastrointestinal endoscopy uses a flexible tube with a camera or viewing port to inspect the esophagus, stomach, proximal small intestine, or colon for evidence of disease-causing clinical signs characteristic of gastrointestinal disease. Foreign bodies can often be retrieved. Biopsies are taken of abnormal and normal tissue, as not all conditions cause gross changes to the stomach or intestinal surface. The endoscope cannot reach all areas of the small intestine, so other tests may be needed to diagnose disease in this area. Endoscopic pinch biopsies are not full thickness so if diagnosis is not achieved with endoscopic biopsies, additional testing including surgical biopsies may be needed. 12-18 hours fasting and enemas are required prior to endoscopy depending on the area being studied.
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Addison’s disease, or hypoadrenocorticism, results from decreased corticosteroid and mineralocorticoid production from the adrenal glands. This results in non-specific signs of illness that mimic many other diseases. This article outlines screening and diagnostic tests for Addison’s disease.
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Antibody titers are sometimes needed to diagnose disease. Antibody titers reflect the level of antibody that the pet has made in response to exposure to a certain infectious organism. The titer is determined by sequentially diluting the serum and testing it against the organism in question. The more dilute the serum when it stops producing a positive reaction, the higher the concentration of antibodies present in the blood. Titers give support to a diagnosis, allowing more targeted treatment and more specific prognostic information, as well as identifying zoonotic disease (diseases transmissible between animals and humans).
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Bile acids are compounds that are made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder and help with digestion of foods. The bile acid test is a very useful test that helps to determine if the liver is working properly. An abnormal bile acid test result indicates there is a problem in the liver, but it does not provide information about the cause, severity, or reversibility of the problem. Further testing is required to investigate the problem.
Learn MoreHaving your pet properly prepared for a blood test helps to ensure that the results are as accurate and reliable as possible. Preparation for these two types of tests is slightly different. Your veterinarian will give you specific instructions before your appointment. It is important that you follow these instructions exactly to ensure accurate test results.
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Bone marrow is the soft material found in the central core of many bones. Bone marrow is commonly collected and examined when abnormalities are found in the circulating blood. The pathologist's report typically provides information about the health of the marrow, the types of cells present, whether abnormal cells are found, and other details that may help to explain the patient's illness.
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The first step in processing a blood sample is centrifugation. The blood is placed in a centrifuge, where it is spun in a small circle at high speed (much like a spinning ride at an amusement park).
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Cerebrospinal fluid (or CSF) is formed within the brain, primarily at specialized sites called the choroid plexuses. CSF is found within the brain and in the space that surrounds both the brain and the spinal cord (this space is called the subarachnoid space).
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Coagulation is the series of events that result in the formation of a clot. In the body, coagulation occurs after any injury to a blood vessel or tissue, in order to stop bleeding. Some breeds of dogs are known to have a higher incidence of clotting factor deficiencies and with these breeds, coagulation tests may be used for screening purposes prior to diagnostic or surgical procedures.
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The complete blood count (CBC) assesses different parameters of the cells in the blood including total number, appearance, size, and shape. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets comprise the cellular component of the blood.
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A Holter monitor is a portable device used to continuously monitor the electrical activity of the heart and can be an effective and non-invasive way to help your veterinarian evaluate heart conditions, especially when trying to determine the cause of fainting episodes or evaluate treatment. Many cats are not bothered by it and ignore its presence.
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A Coombs' (or direct antiglobulin) test detects the presence of immunoglobulins (antibodies) on the surface of red blood cells. Immunoglobulins are proteins made by white blood cells (specifically plasma cells).
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Cushing's disease, or hyperadrenocorticism, is the overproduction of cortisol hormone by a dog's body. The clinical signs of Cushing's disease are similar, regardless of the underlying cause of the disease. However, it is essential to identify the type of Cushing's disease as the treatment and prognosis differ slightly depending upon the form of the disease.
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Fine needle aspiration is a useful tool to collect samples for cytology and is often used to diagnose abnormal lumps on your pet's body as well as evaluation of fluid samples and tissue surfaces. It is relatively simple and inexpensive but can provide a lot of information. Depending on results, further tests may be indicated to best help your pet.
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Cytology is a useful tool to often diagnose abnormal lumps on your pet's body as well as evaluation of fluid samples and tissue surfaces. It is relatively simple and inexpensive but can provide a lot of information. Depending on results, further tests may be indicated to best help your pet.
Learn MoreCytology is the microscopic examination of cells that have been collected from the body. Lesions on the surface of the skin or from moist body cavities can be sampled very simply by scraping, swabbing, flushing, or making impressions of the tissue. The collected cells get looked at under a microscope and in many cases a diagnosis can be made to determine the best form of treatment.
Learn MoreDNA is a large complex molecule that carries the genetic information or genetic code of an organism. All common forms of life, such as viruses, bacteria, plants, and animals carry a copy of their own genetic code in each of their cells. Each organism has a unique section of DNA that is just like a fingerprint. DNA-PCR is often used to detect the presence of infectious organisms; especially when detecting extremely small numbers of infectious organisms and for detecting certain viruses and bacteria that are difficult to diagnose by other methods.
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Dexamethasone is used to test the level of cortisol hormone in the body. Injection of dexamethasone will cause a decreased level of cortisol in a normal pet; however, in a pet with Cushing's disease, there is minimal or no decrease in cortisol level. Other diseases can suppress cortisol production, so it is important to rule these out prior to dexamethasone testing. Knowing the type of Cushing's disease your pet has can guide treatment decisions and offers a more defined prognosis.
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Pets that have been diagnosed with epilepsy are usually prescribed one or more medications to prevent convulsions or seizures. Careful monitoring of epileptic pets is necessary, not only to make sure the dose of the medicine is right, but also to ensure there are no problems related to the long-term use of the medication. The most important thing to do is follow your veterinarian's instructions closely and give the medication regularly and consistently. This will ensure that the value reported on the blood test is reliable.
Learn MoreA fecal Baermann is a specialized test for detecting certain types of parasites or worms.
Learn MoreFecal flotation is a routine veterinary test used to diagnose internal parasites or worms. The test detects the eggs of mature parasites that live inside the body and pass their eggs to the outside by shedding them in the host's stool.
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A fecal occult blood test screens for the presence of hemoglobin (a component of red blood cells) in a fecal sample. Many conditions can cause blood to appear in the stool including intestinal ulceration, neoplasia, dental disease, and parasites. More testing is needed if the fecal occult blood test is positive. False negatives can occur from intermittent bleeding. False positives can also occur from what the pet has eaten in the last 3 days, such as raw/undercooked meat, raw vegetables, and some canned foods. Your veterinarian may suggest repeat tests to ensure an accurate diagnosis.
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Flow cytometry is a laboratory technique that can be used for counting, examining, and sorting cells. The sample is passed through a light source and as the cells move through the path of the light source, they scatter the light. The scattered light is captured by lenses, translated into an electrical signal, and is then analyzed and displayed as a graphical representation of the cell populations within the sample. Flow cytometry is used to count and group cells within a blood sample. It is also used in the characterization of cellular subpopulations; for example, to distinguish between benign and malignant lymphocytes.
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FIP is one of the most challenging diseases to diagnose because feline coronaviruses are commonly found in the intestinal tract of many healthy cats. When this virus mutates or changes, clinical disease occurs. Unfortunately, routine blood testing for feline coronavirus is not clinically useful. Instead, testing is restricted to those cats in which a diagnosis of FIP is strongly suspected due to clinical signs and other supportive laboratory data. Histopathology remains the best way to diagnose FIP in the living cat.
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X-ray images are produced by directing X-rays through a part of the body towards an absorptive surface such as an X-ray film or electronic sensor. The image is produced by the differing energy absorption of various parts of the body. Bones are the most absorptive and leave a white image on the screen, whereas soft tissue absorbs varying degrees of energy depending on the density, producing shades of gray on the image. Air on an X-ray is black. X-rays are a common diagnostic tool used for many purposes.
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A biopsy is one of the more common diagnostic procedures performed in cats. Biopsies provide valuable insight into the type of cells in an abnormal area of skin or a skin growth and whether the growth poses a more serious health threat to your pet. Either the entire mass or a small representative section of skin is removed and submitted to a veterinary pathologist, who will perform a histopathology analysis. The pathologist will attempt to determine the nature of the lesion, identify the type of cells and their relationship to each other, as well as any evidence of malignancy.
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Heartworm disease is caused by a parasite that typically affects dogs but can occasionally occur in cats. Heartworm is usually diagnosed with a simple blood test. Unlike in dogs, treatment options are limited in cats. Heartworm preventives are available for cats. Your veterinarian can advise you on the best prevention program for your cat.
Learn MoreThe term hypercalcemia is used when the level of calcium in the blood is higher than normal. Calcium levels are controlled by a pair of parathyroid glands. High calcium levels may signal the presence of serious underlying disease including kidney failure, adrenal gland failure, a parathyroid gland tumor, and some types of cancer. Pets with hypercalcemia may show signs of weakness, listlessness, increased drinking and urination, and loss of appetite. Your veterinarian will perform diagnostic tests which may include total calcium, ionized calcium, albumin, and parathyroid hormone levels.
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Tests to diagnose kidney disease include complete blood count (CBC), serum biochemistry, and urinalysis. Further diagnostic tests may be recommended based on the results of these initial screening tests. The additional tests help to identify the cause and severity of kidney disease, which will help determine the best treatment plan for your pet.
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Testing for microalbuminuria has some use in detecting early kidney disease but can also be an indicator of multiple other diseases. A positive test gives your veterinarian suspicion to carry out further testing; however, it can have false positives if not used properly. It is a simple test that can give you a jump on treating a condition to help your cat live a happier life for longer.
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If microalbuminuria is detected, your veterinarian will likely recommend further testing to look for hidden disease. The choice of tests may vary but could include routine blood tests and urinalysis (see handouts “Complete Blood Countâ€, “Serum Biochemistryâ€, and “Urinalysis†for more information). If there is no evidence of underlying illness, then regular check-ups every 3-6 months, including microalbuminuria testing, may be recommended to monitor your dog’s health status and to watch for any changes.
Learn MoreLeptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by a type of bacteria called Leptospira. The disease causes serious damage to the kidney and liver, and may be fatal in severe cases. Severely infected dogs show signs of lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, vomiting, fever, and increased thirst and urination. Dogs may develop jaundice. There are several tests for diagnosing leptospirosis, but the two most common ones are the DNA-PCR test and the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Infection can be diagnosed with either test, but each has weaknesses, and in some situations both tests may be needed to reach a diagnosis.
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Initial screening tests for liver disease include a complete blood count (CBC), biochemistry panel, and urinalysis. Bile acid testing can be used to detect problems in liver function. More advanced diagnostics to determine the cause of liver disease include abdominal ultrasound, fine needle aspiration of the liver, or liver biopsy. Testing for various infectious diseases, including leptospirosis, may also be indicated.
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This handout discusses Lyme disease in dogs, primarily the issue of methods of testing for the disease.
Learn MoreThe pancreas is an abdominal organ responsible for regulating blood glucose (endocrine function) and releasing enzymes that aid in digestion (exocrine function). A deficiency in releasing digestive enzymes causes a disease called exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. This disease is diagnosed by measuring blood levels of trypsin-like immunoreactivity that is proportional to the amount of a specific digestive enzyme released into the intestine (trypsin). False negatives can be seen with concurrent pancreatitis or not performing the test on a fasted sample. B12 and folate levels can be supportive of the diagnosis. Endocrine pancreatic dysfunction causes diabetes mellitus, diagnosed by elevated glucose levels in the blood and urine. Pancreatitis diagnosis without a biopsy of the organ is not straightforward. Many abnormalities in blood tests can support the diagnosis, including: increased white blood cells, increased PCV, increased amylase or lipase; but an elevation of pancreatic specific lipase immunoreactivity is the most diagnostic of the blood tests. Ultrasound and X-rays can also show changes supporting pancreatitis.
Learn MorePancreas-specific lipase is a form of lipase produced only in the pancreas and is highly specific to the pancreas. Blood values increase only when there is pancreatic inflammation. There is now a version of the fPLI test that can be used in-clinic (SNAP fPL© from IDEXX). Ideally, the sample should also be sent to the laboratory to get an actual value of fPLI to help with treatment and monitoring.
Learn MoreA blood test detects pregnancy in the pregnant dog by measuring levels of a hormone called relaxin. This hormone is produced by the developing placenta following implantation of the embryo, and can be detected in the blood in most pregnant dogs as early as 22-27 days post-breeding.
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Pancreas-specific lipase is a form of lipase produced only in the pancreas and is highly specific to the pancreas. Blood values increase only when there is pancreatic inflammation. A version of the cPLI test can now be used in-clinic (SNAP fPL© from IDEXX). Ideally, the sample should also be sent to the laboratory to get an actual value of cPLI to help with treatment and monitoring.
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Pre-surgical testing is the best way to minimize anesthetic risks and ensure good surgical outcomes. Pre-anesthetic testing consists of, at minimum, a full physical examination and may include complete blood count (CBC), serum biochemistry, urinalysis, radiographs, EKG, or more advanced testing. The results of pre-surgical testing are used to formulate the safest anesthetic plan for your pet.
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is produced in the brain and regulates the production of cortisol. When blood cortisol levels are low, it is secreted to stimulate more production, and when blood cortisol levels are high (like from an adrenal tumor), ACTH production is suppressed. ACTH testing alone cannot be used to diagnose Cushing's disease but can help determine what type of Cushing's disease the patient has.
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Serum biochemistry measures the amount of enzymes, proteins, sugar, electrolytes, minerals, and hormones found in the liquid portion of the blood. Testing for these substances provides information about the body’s organs and tissues, as well as the metabolic state of the animal. This article provides general information on the most routinely measured factors in serum and common reasons for abnormal readings.
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Serum iron tests are indicated when the results from a complete blood count (CBC) indicate that your pet is anemic (decreased red blood cell numbers and/or decreased hemoglobin) and that the red blood cells are microcytic (smaller than usual) and hypochromic (contain less hemoglobin than usual).
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Electrolytes are the salts and metallic components that are dissolved within the blood serum (serum is the liquid portion of blood). The electrolytes of greatest clinical importance are sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphorus, and calcium. It is important to detect changes in electrolyte concentrations so that these changes can be treated before the situation becomes severe or life-threatening.
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Serum is the liquid portion of blood from which the red blood cells, white blood cells, and factors involved in blood clotting have been removed.
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Serum contains many proteins that perform diverse functions, which include providing cellular nutrition, defending against infections, playing a role in inflammation, and acting as hormones or enzymes. Protein electrophoresis is a specialized test that analyzes specific groups of proteins in the blood serum and measures how much of each group of protein is present. The results of the analysis help diagnose specific diseases, such as infection and some types of cancer.
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Coughing can have many different causes. The search for answers starts with a complete history and physical examination. Additional diagnostic tests may be needed and your veterinarian may recommend doing screening tests. These are a series of simple tests that provide information about the overall health of the pet and may provide further clues about the underlying problem.
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The causes of abdominal enlargement include an increase in intra-abdominal fat due to simple overall weight gain because of excess calories or insufficient exercise. A redistribution of fat into the abdominal cavity may occur with Cushing's disease.
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Listlessness and inappetence are vague signs that can occur in pets for many reasons, both physical and mental. Diagnosis starts with a thorough history and physical exam and may progress to screening tests, including a complete blood test, biochemistry profile, and urinalysis, as well as additional tests. This article outlines the typical tests for listlessness and inappetence.
Learn MoreDiarrhea can be a simple diagnosis or a complex one. A thorough history and physical exam may be enough to determine the cause; however, in less obvious cases, various tests may be needed. Pending the results, a treatment plan can be developed.
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Fever of unknown origin is a term used for persistent fever in pets. It has many possible causes, including infection, immune-mediated disease, and cancer. Initial steps in diagnosis are history and physical exam, followed by standard screening tests, including a complete blood count, biochemistry profile, and urinalysis. Further testing may be indicated. This article outlines the typical tests.
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Ultrasound uses the reflection of sound waves to generate an image of internal structures, allowing for identification of masses, pregnancy diagnosis, abnormal heart function and muscle size, abnormalities of the orbit, and abnormal appearance of abdominal organs. Ultrasound results can be analyzed in real time; however, assessment by a radiologist may take several days. Ultrasound is an invaluable tool to detect problems in a non-invasive fashion.
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An increased appetite can be normal in pets that have higher than normal energy requirements, as growing puppies and kittens, pets that exercise strenuously, such as hunting dogs, and pregnant or nursing females. Many diseases can cause an increased appetite, including hyperthyroidism in cats, Cushing's disease, intestinal disease, diabetes or insulinoma, intestinal parasitism, and cancer. Increased appetite can also be caused by certain medications, such as corticosteroids. Diagnosis generally requires a thorough history, physical exam, complete blood count (CBC), biochemistry panel, thyroxine (in cats), and urinalysis. Additional diagnostic testing may be required.
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These clinical signs are non-specific and can be caused by many different diseases or conditions. Usually increased production of dilute urine results in a compensatory increase in water consumption, but occasionally the condition is one of increased water intake resulting in the production of large volumes of dilute urine.
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Jaundice is caused by the build-up of bilirubin in the tissues due to high blood levels of bilirubin (hyperbilirubinemia) in the blood. Hyperbilirubinemia occurs either due to increased red blood cell destruction (hemolysis), or an inability of the liver to process or excrete bilirubin normally. CBC, biochemistry panel, and urinalysis are tests used to further define the cause of jaundice. Further diagnostics that may be needed and include ultrasound, X-ray, FNA, liver biopsy and/or bacterial culture from fluid found in or around the liver. More specific tests for infectious diseases include FeLV, feline coronavirus, and fungal testing.
Learn MoreThe most common cause of lameness is trauma or injury to joints, ligaments, tendons, muscles, or bones. Other causes of lameness include developmental diseases in young animals, degenerative joint disease in older pets, immune-mediated joint disease, infectious joint diseases, neurological disorders, and cancer of the bones or joints. Finding the cause of a pet's lameness usually starts with a complete history and physical examination. Tests such as X-rays, joint fluid analysis, and blood testing may also be used to diagnose the lameness.
Learn MoreSeizures typically occur for three main reasons, but finding the cause can be difficult. Finding the cause of a pet's seizures can be difficult and usually starts with a complete history and physical examination. Your veterinarian will likely recommend screening tests to look for metabolic disease and other illnesses that can cause seizures. Screening tests are a series of simple tests that provide information about the overall health of the pet. There are many additional tests that can be done depending on the results of history, physical examination, and screening tests.
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Hypoglycemia can be caused by many different things including liver failure, sepsis, Addison's disease, and overdose of insulin in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. A tumor of the pancreas called an insulinoma can also cause low blood glucose due to excessive production of insulin. After detecting hypoglycemia on a blood sample, determining the cause includes a full history, physical exam, CBC, biochemistry profile, and urinalysis. More advanced testing such as imaging, biopsy, or ACTH stimulation testing may be recommended.
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In pets, pallor is usually detected as a loss of color from the gums and inner eyelids and can be a sign of anemia or poor circulation. A pet’s history of illness and a complete physical examination are important in determining the cause of the pallor. However, your veterinarian may also recommend doing screening tests such as a complete blood count, serum biochemistry and urinalysis. Additional tests may also be needed.
Learn MoreUnexplained bleeding is worrisome because it suggests a problem with the body’s blood clotting or coagulation system. Disorders of the coagulation system can arise for many reasons, including shortages of coagulation factors (clotting proteins), a shortage of platelets (a type of blood cell), defective platelets, and serious systemic disease affecting the whole body.
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Sneezing and nasal discharge can occur for many different reasons, including infection, allergy, foreign body, and tumors. A thorough history and physical exam is the first step in diagnosing the cause of sneezing/nasal discharge. Initial screening tests are outlined, including CBC, biochemistry profile, urinalysis, and coagulation testing. Specific tests and more advanced diagnostics are also summarized.
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A pet with vomiting may suffer from an isolated incident, or it could be a sign of more severe problems. If the cause for vomiting is not obvious from history and examination, screening tests may be done to eliminate possible causes and determine a treatment plan. Results can also provide a prognosis for recovery and long-term outlook.
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Inappropriate urination happens in well-trained pets for many reasons, including inflammation, infection, estrogen deficiency, kidney failure, diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, Cushing's disease, neurological disease, or behavioral issues. A number of screening tests will be performed by your veterinarian to determine the root cause of the inappropriate urination. These tests are outlined in this article.
Learn MoreWeakness can be caused by many different problems and can involve a variety of body systems. Finding the cause of your pet’s weakness starts with a complete history and physical examination. The most commonly recommended screening tests for weakness include complete blood count, serum biochemistry profile, urinalysis, and in a dog, total thyroxine. Additional tests may be recommended based on the results of these screening tests.
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The most common disorder of the thyroid gland in cats is hyperthyroidism. Diagnosis of hyperthyroidism includes screening the hormone output of the thyroid as well as screening for other systemic diseases. This is achieved by running a complete blood count, biochemistry panel, urinalysis, and total T4 (tT4). Additional tests may be required. Cats undergoing treatment for hyperthyroidism will have regular blood monitoring to ensure the disease is under control.
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Weight loss in dogs can be caused by many conditions including inadequate intake to meet energy requirements, poor quality nutrition, and many different medical conditions. Testing for weight loss starts with a thorough history and physical exam. If the cause of weight loss is not clear, then screening tests including a CBC, biochemistry, urinalysis, and fecal tests are performed to further investigate. Based on the results of these tests, more specific diagnostic tests such as imaging, bile acids, or ACTH stimulation may be needed to determine the reason for the weight loss.
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The most common disorder of the thyroid gland in dogs is hypothyroidism. Diagnosis of hypothyroidism includes a complete blood count, biochemistry profile, urinalysis, and thyroid-related hormones. Mild anemia, elevated cholesterol and mildly elevated liver and kidney enzymes are supportive of a diagnosis of hypothyroidism. A combination of clinical signs and measurements of total T4, free T4 by equilibrium dialysis, and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is generally used to confirm a diagnosis.
Learn MoreTrypsin-like immunoreactivity (TLI) is a blood test that measures the amount of a pancreatic proenzyme called trypsinogen. This measurement correlates with the amount of pancreatic enzymes released into the intestine to aid in digestion. A low measurement indicates exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. Concurrent pancreatitis or tests done shortly after a meal may temporarily increase this measurement to a normal value (false negative).
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Urinalysis is an important part of any comprehensive workup or health screen. It provides information on the urinary system including the kidneys and bladder and also can support diagnosis of metabolic disease, such as diabetes mellitus.
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Food allergies can be problematic for many dogs, especially after years on the same diet. Clinical signs may manifest as gastrointestinal or skin problems. Some animal proteins are the most common causes and strict avoidance is the best way to treat affected dogs. An eight to twelve-week elimination diet trial on a special veterinary diet is the only definitive method to diagnose a food allergy and, in some cases, the veterinary diet may need to be continued long-term.
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An allergy is a state of over-reactivity or hypersensitivity of the immune system to a particular substance called an allergen. Most allergens are proteins from plants, insects, animals, or foods. In dogs, the most common symptom associated with allergies is itchy skin, either localized (in one area) or generalized (all over the body). In other cases, the allergic symptoms affect the digestive system, resulting in vomiting and diarrhea. The symptoms of allergies can be confused with other disorders or occur concurrently with them.
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Cortisol is a stress hormone that is excreted from the body in the urine. Creatinine is a product of muscle metabolism and is normally lost in the urine at a relatively steady rate. The ratio of creatinine to cortisol in the urine can be used to account for the effect of urine concentration on cortisol measurements. Urine cortisol/creatinine ratio is usually evaluated in animals suspected of having Cushing's disease. This test involves the collection of a single urine sample, taken first thing in the morning.
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The presence of protein in urine is called proteinuria, and it may indicate that the kidneys are not working properly. In some situations, proteinuria may even be a sign of kidney failure; however, bleeding or inflammation in the urinary system is a far more common cause. Your veterinarian may recommend further testing if the urinalysis reveals inflammation or bleeding.
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Feline viral testing typically encompasses testing for feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and coronavirus which causes feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). Testing for FeLV and FIV is recommended to detect underlying causes to illness, to screen apparently healthy cats who may have been exposed to the viruses, and to identify carriers of the viruses prior to introducing cats into a household of other cats. FIP testing is somewhat more problematic.
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The urine protein/creatinine (UPC) ratio is a test that measures how much protein is being lost through the kidneys. The UPC measures whether protein excretion is greater than expected when compared to the excretion of creatinine. Before the UPC ratio can be interpreted, two other measures of kidney function should be taken: blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine.
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Testing for FeLV is recommended to detect underlying causes to illness, to screen apparently healthy cats who may have been exposed to the viruses, and to identify carriers of the viruses prior to introducing cats into a household of other cats. Testing for coronavirus is indicated when FIP is suspected. In-clinic blood tests are available for FeLV. Confirmatory testing of any positive tests is recommended at referral laboratories, usually using DNA tests. Vaccination against FeLV will not affect the outcome of a cat already infected with the virus nor will it affect testing.
Learn MoreVon Willebrand's disease causes an inability for blood to clot resulting in inappropriate bleeding. It is most commonly seen in Dobermans. If this disease is suspected, initial screening tests include complete blood count (CBC), buccal mucosal bleeding time, and a coagulation profile. More advanced diagnostics include assays that assess the quantity and functionality of vWF. DNA testing is available and most commonly used to evaluate breeding stock.
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Testing for FeLV is recommended to detect underlying causes to illness, to screen apparently healthy cats who may have been exposed to the viruses, and to identify carriers of the viruses prior to introducing cats into a household of other cats. Testing protocols are discussed. Vaccination against FeLV will not affect the outcome of a cat already infected with the virus nor will it affect testing.
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Ultrasound uses the reflection of sound waves to generate an image of internal structures allowing for identification of masses, pregnancy diagnosis, abnormal heart function and muscle size, abnormalities of the orbit, and abnormal appearance of abdominal organs. Ultrasound results can be analyzed in real time; however, assessment by a radiologist may take several days. Ultrasound is an invaluable tool to detect problems in a non-invasive fashion.
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An electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG) is a test that is used to assess the heart. More specifically, an ECG measures the transmission of an electrical impulse through the heart. This test is not painful and is typically performed as an outpatient procedure. Analyzing the electrical impulses produced as the heart beats can help identify a number of different abnormalities within the heart.
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Gastrointestinal endoscopy uses a flexible tube with a camera or viewing port to inspect the esophagus, stomach, proximal small intestine, or colon for evidence of disease-causing clinical signs characteristic of gastrointestinal disease. Foreign bodies can often be retrieved. Biopsies are taken of abnormal and normal tissue, as not all conditions cause gross changes to the stomach or intestinal surface. The endoscope cannot reach all areas of the small intestine, so other tests may be needed to diagnose disease in these areas. Endoscopic pinch biopsies are not full thickness so if diagnosis is not achieved with endoscopic biopsies, additional testing including surgical biopsies may be needed. 12-18 hours fasting and enemas are required prior to endoscopy depending on the area being studied.
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A biopsy is one of the more common diagnostic procedures performed in dogs. Biopsies provide valuable insight into the type of cells in an abnormal area of skin or a skin growth and whether the growth poses a more serious health threat to your pet. Either the entire mass or a small representative section of skin is removed and submitted to a veterinary pathologist, who will perform a histopathology analysis. The pathologist will attempt to determine the nature of the lesion, identify the type of cells and their relationship to each other, as well as any evidence of malignancy.
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Wellness testing, performed routinely on apparently healthy birds, screens for underlying, hidden problems. Veterinarians also use test results in conjunction with physical examination findings and the owner's account of the bird's history to diagnose illnesses. Blood tests include the complete blood count and chemistry profile. Other tests your veterinarian may use to assess your bird's health and diagnose disease are discussed.
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A Holter monitor is a portable device used to continuously monitor the electrical activity of the heart and can be an effective and non-invasive way to help your veterinarian evaluate heart conditions, especially when trying to determine the cause of fainting episodes or evaluate treatment. Many dogs are not bothered by it and ignore its presence.
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X-ray images are produced by directing X-rays through a part of the body towards an absorptive surface such as an X-ray film or electronic sensor. The image is produced by the differing energy absorption of various parts of the body. Bones are the most absorptive and leave a white image on the screen, whereas soft tissue absorbs varying degrees of energy depending on the density, producing shades of gray on the image. Air on an X-ray is black. X-rays are a common diagnostic tool used for many purposes.
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Testing for diabetes includes confirming hyperglycemia and glucosuria while looking for other conditions by taking a complete blood count (anemia, infection), biochemistry profile (hepatic disease, pancreatitis), and a urinalysis (urinary tract infection). Monitoring includes regular glucose curves and additional exams and testing based on the pet owner's monitoring of their cat's clinical signs at home. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine are sometimes used in diabetic monitoring and urine testing for infection may be recommended.
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Testing for diabetes includes confirming hyperglycemia and glucosuria while looking for other conditions by taking a complete blood count (anemia, infection), biochemistry profile (hepatic disease, pancreatitis), and a urinalysis (urinary tract infection). Monitoring includes regular glucose curves and additional exams and testing based on the pet owner's monitoring of their dog's clinical signs at home. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine are sometimes used in diabetic monitoring and urine testing for infection may be recommended.
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Heartworm disease is caused by a parasite called Dirofilaria immitis, better known as heartworm. Dogs become infected when they are bitten by an infected mosquito that is carrying immature heartworms. This handout discusses signs, diagnostic tests, treatment, and prevention in dogs.
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Regular preventive health care for your dog can increase the length and quality of her life. Health care guidelines are established and kept up to date using the most recent evidence-based recommendations including the recommendation that all dogs receive a complete veterinary examination at least once a year or more frequently, depending on their individual needs and health concerns.
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Regular preventive health care for your cat can increase the length and quality of her life. Healthcare guidelines are established and kept up to date using the most recent evidence-based recommendations including the recommendation that all cats receive a complete veterinary examination at least once a year or more frequently, depending on their individual needs and health concerns.
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The American Animal Hospital Association and American Veterinary Medical Association have established guidelines to standardize preventive health care for dogs, helping them to live longer, healthier lives. This handout provides an overview of the recommendations within these guidelines and why they are so important.
Learn MoreAbdominal enlargement is a general term that means a cat's belly is larger or fuller than usual and bulges beyond the normal outline of the body. Abdominal enlargement may develop for many reasons depending on the age and gender of the cat.
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The American Animal Hospital Association and American Veterinary Medical Association have established guidelines to standardize preventive health care for cats, helping them to live longer, healthier lives. This handout provides an overview of the recommendations within these guidelines and why they are so important.
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Wobbler syndrome is a disease of the neck (the cervical spine) that is seen in large and giant breeds of dog. These dogs experience compression of the spinal cord and the spinal nerve roots, resulting in nervous system deficits and/or neck pain,
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Infertility in a male dog is defined as the inability to produce a successful pregnancy in a fertile female, even with multiple breedings near the time of ovulation. The causes of infertility fall under three broad categories: failure to copulate or ejaculate, poor semen quality, and prostatic disease. This handout explains the possible causes in detail, as well as methods to diagnose and treat them.
Learn MoreInfertility in a female dog is defined as the inability to conceive and deliver viable puppies, even when mated multiple times with a known fertile male surrounding the time of ovulation. This handout outlines the varying causes of infertility in female dogs and how they may be diagnosed and treated.
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Food allergies can be problematic for many cats, especially after years on the same diet. Clinical signs may manifest as gastrointestinal or skin problems. Animal proteins are the most common causes and strict avoidance is the best way to treat affected cats. An 8 to 12-week elimination diet trial on a special veterinary diet is the only definitive method to diagnose a food allergy and, in some cases, the veterinary diet may need to be continued long-term.
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An electrocardiogram, or ECG, is a test that is used to assess the heart. More specifically, an ECG records the transmission of an electrical impulse through the heart. This test is not painful and is typically performed as an outpatient procedure. Analyzing the electrical impulses produced as the heart beats can help identify a number of different abnormalities within the heart.
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This handout discusses arthroscopy, the insertion of a telescope-like camera into a joint. The joints commonly examined and treated using this technique, along with the benefits and risks of this procedure, are outlined.
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Pandora syndrome affects multiple organ systems, including the urinary tract. The term is often used synonymously with Feline Idiopathic Cystitis (FIC), but FIC is only one component of Pandora syndrome. It is believed to be related to chronic stress. This article discusses causes, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for cats with this condition.
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