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The anal sacs are two small pouches located on either side of the anus. The walls of the sac produce a foul-smelling fluid that is released when a cat passes a bowel movement. The anal sacs or their ducts can become inflamed or infected due to a variety of causes. Most cats will respond well to pain relief medications and antibiotics. If a cat has several episodes of anal sac disease, and dietary changes and supplements or medication do not relieve the problem, the anal sacs can be removed surgically.
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Anesthesia is accomplished by administering drugs that depress nerve function. It is important that you fully understand what will happen to your pet, and that you understand the risks. Anesthetic monitoring in a veterinary hospital is like that found in any human hospital. With today's anesthetics, many of which are reversible, your pet should be almost completely normal by the time of discharge.
Learn MoreBladder stones are rock-like formations of minerals that develop in the urinary bladder. All stones form because of disease or inflammation in the bladder. The most common signs in cats are bloody urine and straining to urinate. X-rays (with or without contrast dyes) or ultrasound may be necessary for diagnosis. The fastest way to remove bladder stones is via a surgical procedure called a cystotomy. Special diets or passing a catheter may be successful for some bladder stones. Your veterinarian will advise you of the best course of action for your cat's situation.
Learn MoreA caesarean section or C-section is major surgery performed to remove kittens from the uterus. This is most commonly performed as an emergency procedure when there is difficulty with natural birth. Most cats recover quickly from this procedure. Most cats have fully recovered from anesthesia by the time they are discharged to go home.
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Cholangitis/cholangiohepatitis in cats refers to inflammation of the bile duct or a combination of inflammation of the bile duct, gallbladder, and surrounding liver tissue. The clinical signs, diagnosis, treatments, and prognosis of the conditions are outlined in this handout.
Learn MoreThe word cruciate means 'to cross over' or 'form a cross'. The cruciate ligaments are two bands of fibrous tissue located in each knee joint. They connect the femur and tibia (the bones above and below the knee joint). The knee joint of the cat is one of the weakest in its body. When severe twisting of the knee joint occurs; the anterior or cranial cruciate ligament most commonly tears or breaks.
Learn MoreCats scratch and claw for several reasons: scratching serves to shorten and condition the claws, scratching allows an effective, whole body stretch, and cats scratch to mark their territory. There are many approaches to resolving scratching issues.
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Dental disease is one of the most common medical conditions seen by veterinarians. The most common types of dental disease in cats are periodontal disease and tooth resorption. This article discusses the most common dental diseases in cats, signs, diagnostic procedures, treatments, and preventive steps to keep a cat’s teeth healthy.
Learn MoreThe diaphragm is the muscular partition that separates the abdomen and the chest. Tearing or disruption of this thin muscle is called a diaphragmatic hernia or diaphragmatic rupture. The most common cause of diaphragmatic hernia is blunt force trauma. Clinical signs are dependent on the severity of herniation. There is often respiratory distress, an abnormal heart rhythm, muffled heart and lung sounds, and other signs of systemic shock. The abdomen may feel empty when palpated. Once the patient is stable, the hernia must be corrected surgically.
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Usually caused by a bite from another cat, fight wound infections can lead to the development of an abscess (a pocket of pus) or cellulitis (pain and swelling in the area of the bite). A cat’s sharp canine teeth can easily puncture the skin of another cat, leaving small, deep, wounds that seal over quickly, so it is important that your cat is seen by a veterinarian for treatment as soon as possible after being bitten.
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An aural hematoma is a collection of blood between the cartilage and skin of the ear flap. It is most likely caused by trauma but can also be due to a bleeding disorder. If an underlying cause is determined such as infection, this needs to be treated as well. Hematomas may eventually resolve on their own, but there is a risk of permanent damage and they are painful, so prompt treatment is recommended.
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Hyperthyroidism is a common condition in older cats caused by excess thyroid hormone release resulting in an increased metabolic state. Hyperthyroidism can cause weight loss despite a good appetite, increased water consumption and urination, vomiting, diarrhea, cardiomyopathy, and hypertension. Diagnosis is made by testing blood thyroid hormone levels. Several successful treatment options exist, including medication, thyroidectomy, radioactive iodine, and a prescription diet. The prognosis with treatment is generally good.
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Cats are curious by nature, which can lead them into trouble, especially when they ingest items not meant to be eaten, such as thread, wool, paper, rubber bands, plant materials, and small toys. While some will pass through the digestive tract, some foreign bodies can cause serious problems. This handout explains foreign bodies in the intestinal tracts of cats and reviews clinical signs, diagnostic tests, treatment, and the prognosis of these situations.
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A joint luxation is a dislocation or complete separation between the bones that normally move back and forth to form a joint. Subluxation refers to a partial separation of the joint. The most commonly subluxated joint in cats is the hip, although any joint can be affected. Your veterinarian may suspect a joint subluxation based on a history of trauma and physical examination findings such as pain and limping. A radiograph is necessary to definitively diagnose a joint subluxation. In many cases, the joint can be reduced or replaced to its original orientation by a procedure called a closed reduction, with a good prognosis if treated immediately. Surgery correction, however, may be needed.
Learn MoreLaser surgery is a procedure that generates a beam of light energy at a specific wavelength, resulting in the cutting of tissues. There are three major advantages of laser surgery when compared to traditional stainless steel surgical scalpels, which are decreased pain, decreased inflammation, and improved tissue healing. Routine procedures such as ovariohysterectomy and castration are commonly done with laser.
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If the nerves to the colon do not function normally, the muscles of the colonic wall will not contract properly. The muscles then become stretched and the colon enlarges in diameter. Rather than being pushed into the rectum in a normal manner, fecal material accumulates in the distended colon, resulting in severe constipation called obstipation. This massive enlargement of the colon and the resulting constipation is called megacolon. Megacolon is often treatable using a medical approach but some cases require surgical intervention called subtotal colectomy.
Learn MoreNasopharyngeal polyps are benign idiopathic masses originating from the middle ear that extend either down the eustachian tube or into the external ear. They can cause stertor, nasal discharge, otitis, otic discharge and head tilt. Diagnosis may involve visualization through otoscopic exam or behind the soft palate, but usually needs radiographic evidence or more advanced imaging such as CT or MRI. Treatment involves debulking the mass through traction which has a high rate of recurrence, or more advanced surgery into the bulla to remove the source of the polyp.
Learn MoreAfter arriving at home, you should keep your cat warm and comfortable by providing a soft clean bed, ideally in a quiet and draft-free room at a comfortable room temperature. Your cat should remain indoors. For most procedures, your cat's activity should be restricted for one full week after surgery. Some cats experience nausea after general anesthesia, so dividing meals into smaller portions may decrease the risk of nausea and vomiting.
Learn MorePyometra is defined as an infection in the uterus. Pyometra is considered a serious and life threatening condition that must be treated quickly and aggressively. Pyometra may occur in any sexually intact young to middle-aged cat; however, it is most common in older cats. Typically, the cat has been in heat within the previous 4 weeks.
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The main objectives of fracture repair are to promote rapid healing of the fracture and to get the cat using its leg as quickly as possible. In most cases, this involves rebuilding the broken bone and fixing it in that position with metallic implants. Post-operative care includes pain medications, antibiotics, adequate nutrition, exercise restriction, and physiotherapy. Most fractures can be repaired very effectively and in many cases, your cat will resume normal activity.
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An umbilical hernia is a protrusion of the abdominal lining, abdominal fat, or a portion of abdominal organ(s) through the area around the umbilicus. An umbilical hernia can vary in size from less than a ¼” (1cm) to more than 1” (2.5cm) in diameter. Small (less than ¼” or 1cm) hernias may close spontaneously (without treatment) by age 3 to 4 months. If the hernia has not closed by the time of spaying or neutering, surgical repair of the hernia is recommended and prognosis is excellent.
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There are several different types of malignant mammary tumors, with carcinomas being the most common. Carcinomas arise from epithelial (skin) cells, tubules of the mammary glands, or other cells found in the mammary chain. The size of the masses and their appearance may vary, but they are usually firm and nodular. Occasionally, the skin over the mass may ulcerate (open) and bleed, and the affected area may feel warm to the touch and become painful. Detecting and treating these tumors when they are small, and before spread has occurred, will provide your dog with the best chance for long-term control.
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Mast cell tumors are most common in the skin of dogs and may appear red, ulcerated, or swollen. They can be itchy and can fluctuate in size. Tumors can range from lower-grade, with minimal spread, to higher-grade, with a high risk of local invasion. Treatment usually involves surgical removal and may require supportive treatment including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and therapy to target the mutation that instigated the tumor.
Learn MoreAnal sac disease is a common problem in dogs that can be very uncomfortable or painful. Signs to watch for, diagnosis, and treatments, including identifying and managing underlying causes are outlined in this handout.
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Anesthesia is accomplished by administering drugs that depress nerve function. It is important that you fully understand what will happen to your pet, and that you understand the risks. Anesthetic monitoring in a veterinary hospital is like that found in any human hospital. With today's anesthetics, many of which are reversible, your pet should be almost completely normal by the time of discharge.
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Bladder stones are rock-like formations of minerals that develop in the urinary bladder. The most common signs in dogs are bloody urine and straining to urinate. Bladder stones can develop within a few weeks, or they may take months to form. Most are visible on X-rays or an ultrasonic bladder examination. There are three main treatment options for bladder stones: surgical removal, non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion, or dietary dissolution. Prevention is possible in some cases, depending on the chemical composition of the stones.
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Gastric Dilatation and Volvulus (GDV) is a life threatening disorder most commonly seen in large, deep-chested dogs. In its early stage, the stomach fills with gas, causing a simple gastric dilatation or bloat. Sometimes, the condition progresses no further than a bloat.
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This handout summarizes the most common forms of lameness in growing dogs. Included are osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), panosteitis, hypertrophic osteodystrophy (HOD), elbow dysplasia, ununited anconeal process (UAP), fragmented coronoid process (FCP), patellar luxation, and hip dysplasia. Clinical signs for each of these conditions, along with treatment options, is discussed.
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Cervical vertebral instability (wobbler syndrome) is caused by compression of the spinal cord, usually at the base of the neck. Although the spinal cord compression occurs in the neck, the hind legs are often affected first. In severe cases, the dog may suddenly develop total paralysis of all four limbs. The condition is most prevalent in Great Danes and Doberman Pinschers. Most pets enjoy a relatively normal lifestyle following surgery.
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A caesarean section is a major surgery to help deliver puppies, usually performed in an emergency. After surgery, the dog may be sleepy but should be able to eat a high-quality diet and nurse puppies within a few hours. The dog should be monitored for fever, abnormal vulvar discharge, and abnormalities at the incision.
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"Cherry eye" is a common term for prolapse of the third eyelid gland. Many mammals, including dogs, have an "extra" or third eyelid located inside the lower eyelid. This serves as an additional protective layer for the eye, especially during hunting or fighting.
Learn MoreCryptorchidism is the failure of one or both testicles to descend into the scrotum. Toy breeds may be more at risk, but it can affect any breed of dog and is believed to be an inherited trait. Diagnosis can usually be made by palpation but sometimes requires blood testing or an abdominal ultrasound if the dog’s history is unknown. Risks of retained testicles include testicular cancer, spermatic cord torsion, and the development of undesirable male characteristics, so neutering is strongly recommended. Surgery is generally routine, and recovery is similar to any abdominal surgery.
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The cruciate ligaments are two bands of fibrous tissue located within each stifle joint. They join the femur and tibia together so that the knee works as a stable, hinged joint. The two most common causes of cranial cruciate rupture are trauma and degeneration of the ligaments within the joint. There are various surgical techniques to stabilize the knee joint following cruciate rupture. Regardless of the technique used to stabilize the joint, arthritis is likely to develop in the joint as your dog ages.
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A cutaneous histiocytoma is a common benign (harmless) tumor of the skin in dogs, typically younger ones. Their development, appearance, diagnosis, and treatment are explained in this handout.
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An umbilical hernia is a protrusion of the abdominal lining, abdominal fat, or a portion of abdominal organ(s) through the area around the umbilicus. An umbilical hernia can vary in size from less than a ¼” (1cm) to more than 1” (2.5cm) in diameter. Small (less than ¼” or 1cm) hernias may close spontaneously (without treatment) by age 3 to 4 months. If the hernia has not closed by the time of spaying or neutering, surgical repair of the hernia is recommended and prognosis is excellent.
Learn MoreThe anconeal process is a small projection of bone on the ulna, the longer of the two bones of the forearm. If the anconeal process does not fuse to the rest of the ulna correctly during growth, it causes a condition called ununited anconeal process (UAP). This problem appears to be hereditary mostly in large breeds. When this part of the ulna does not fuse, the elbow joint becomes unstable, causing lameness and pain. Treatment requires surgery. Some form of rehabilitation will improve your dog's chances of making a full recovery from surgery and minimize lameness problems.
Learn MoreThis handout describes and illustrates this condition, and discusses the causes, clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment options for degenerative disc disease in dogs. Surgical intervention is specifically outlined and rule-outs for other conditions causing similar signs are also discussed.
Learn MoreThe diaphragm is the muscular partition that separates the abdomen and the chest. Tearing or disruption of this thin muscle is called a diaphragmatic hernia or diaphragmatic rupture. The most common cause of diaphragmatic hernia is blunt force trauma. Clinical signs depend on the severity of herniation. There is often respiratory distress, an abnormal heart rhythm, muffled heart and lung sounds, and other signs of systemic shock. The abdomen may feel empty when palpated. Once the patient is stable, the hernia must be corrected surgically.
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Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the pressure within the eye, called the intraocular pressure (IOP) is increased. Glaucoma is caused by inadequate drainage of aqueous fluid. It is classified as primary or secondary glaucoma. High intraocular pressure causes damage to occur in the retina and the optic nerve. Blindness can occur very quickly unless the increased IOP is reduced. Analgesics to control the pain and medications that decrease fluid production and promote drainage are often prescribed to treat glaucoma. The prognosis depends to a degree upon the underlying cause of the glaucoma.
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An aural hematoma is a collection of blood between the cartilage and skin of the ear flap. It is most usually caused by trauma but can also be due to a bleeding disorder. Hematomas in dogs can be treated in different ways but should be treated early to minimize pain and disfigurement. If an underlying cause is determined such as otitis externa, this needs to be treated as well. Hematomas may eventually resolve on their own, but there is a risk of cauliflower ear and they are painful, so prompt treatment is recommended.
Learn MoreCataract formation is a reasonably well-known occurrence in pet birds. Canaries are more prone to cataract formation than other species of birds. Cataracts may be inherited or be secondary to a traumatic injury or infection involving one or both eyes.
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Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is also commonly referred to as dry eye. It is a common eye condition resulting from inadequate production of the watery portion of the tear film by the lacrimal gland or the third eyelid gland. Dogs with KCS have painful, red eyes with a thick yellow discharge. They may have secondary infections or corneal ulcers. Chronic cases have scarring on the cornea, impairing vision. The prognosis for dogs diagnosed with KCS is good with long-term treatment and diligent monitoring.
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Lameness is an inability to properly use one or more limbs due to pain or weakness. The most common causes of sudden lameness in dogs are soft tissue injury (strain or sprain), injury to a joint, bone fracture, or dislocation. Your veterinarian will determine the best course of action based on your pet's condition, a detailed examination, and the results of diagnostic tests. Definitive diagnosis of the cause can be difficult. In some cases, a trial with anti-inflammatory medications and rest may be necessary.
Learn MoreLaryngeal paralysis is a condition that causes dysfunction of the larynx causing reduced ability to breathe deeply and can obstruct the airway. It can be a congenital condition of young dogs or may be due to a neuromuscular disease in older dogs. Clinical signs include coughing, noisy breathing, exercise intolerance, and there may be a change in the sound of the bark. Definitive diagnosis is made thorough examination of the larynx with an endoscope or laryngoscope under sedation. Treatment of mild cases involves environmental management to reduce any stress to the larynx with medications used for flareups. More severe or congenital cases require surgery.
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This handout discusses lens luxation in dogs. The lens is the transparent structure within the eye that focuses light on the retina. Lens luxation is when the support ligaments of the lens weaken or break, causing the lens to dislocate from its normal position. The various types, clinical signs, heredity of the condition, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis are outlined.
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Lumbosacral disease, or cauda equina syndrome, is caused by the narrowing of the spinal canal and results in compression of the spinal nerve roots; pressure on the nerves that exit the spine cause the clinical signs. This pressure may be due to a narrowed spinal canal caused by arthritis, intervertebral disc herniation, an infection in the disc, trauma, congenital malformation, or a spinal tumor. Dogs with lumbosacral disease are in pain. If the clinical signs and radiographs suggest lumbosacral disease, advanced imaging such as MRI or CT is recommended to make a diagnosis. Treatment involves either conservative medical treatment or surgical intervention.
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The patella, or kneecap, is normally located in a groove on the end of the femur (thigh bone) just above the stifle (knee). The term luxating means out of place or dislocated. Therefore, a luxating patella is a kneecap that moves out of its normal location. Pet owners may notice a skip in their dog's step or see their dog run on three legs. Then suddenly they will be back on all four legs as if nothing happened. Many toy or small breed dogs, including Maltese, Chihuahua, French Poodles, and Bichon Frise dogs, have a genetic predisposition for a luxating patella. Surgery should be performed if your dog has recurrent or persistent lameness or if other knee injuries occur secondary to the luxating patella.
Learn MoreVaginitis refers to inflammation of the vagina and can be a result of several possible underlying causes. Prognosis is generally good, especially if the underlying cause is identified and treated early. The most common clinical signs of vaginitis include increased frequency of urination, licking of the vaginal area, vaginal discharges, and scooting or rubbing of the vaginal area. Diagnostic testing to determine the cause of a dog's condition is helpful in identifying the appropriate antibiotic treatment.
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The femoral head is the ball part of the hip joint and if it develops necrosis or dies, it can no longer function properly. Necrosis is due to loss of the blood supply to the femoral head, which may be the result of a growth abnormality or trauma to the hip. It is a hereditary condition of small breed dogs. The most common clinical signs are slowly progressing hind limb lameness with a resulting inability to bear weight on the affected limb or both hind limbs. Diagnosis is made by radiographs of the hip joint. The treatment of choice is femoral head and neck ostectomy, which results in a good prognosis.
Learn MoreProstatic disease can be uncomfortable for a dog, particularly if it causes compression of the urethra or colon. Because there are many diseases of the prostate, it is necessary to perform several tests to determine the exact cause of a patient's condition. This handout provides explanations of the seven most common conditions affecting the prostate and the corresponding approaches to treatment.
Learn MoreA portosystemic shunt causes a bypass of blood from the gastrointestinal tract directly into the systemic circulation, avoiding the normal detoxifying process that happens in the liver and reducing nutrient input into the liver. Liver shunts can be congenital or acquired. Signs, treatment, and prognosis are discussed.
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Pyometra is defined as an infection in the uterus. Pyometra is considered a serious and life threatening condition that must be treated quickly and aggressively. The preferred treatment is to surgically remove the infected uterus and ovaries. Another approach to treating pyometra is the administration of prostaglandins, although the success rate is highly variable.
Learn MoreThe post-operative period is just as important as the surgery itself. Following the set instructions will help avoid complications and lead to a smoother recovery. Monitor the incision daily for signs of redness, swelling, discharge, or excessive licking. Consider using an Elizabethan collar to keep your dog from licking the incision site. Should you have any concerns, contact your veterinarian immediately.
Learn MoreThis handout discusses the use of cryosurgery in pets. This technique involves the use of extreme cold to destroy abnormal or diseased tissues. A short discussion in included as to how the technique is used, and in what circumstances it may be appropriate to use.
Learn MoreLipomas are fatty tumors that affect a variety of pet birds. These are typically benign fatty growths found under the skin. It is classically considered to have both a nutritional and genetic factor for development.
Learn MoreXanthomas are discrete masses or diffuse, thickened areas of skin that are yellow-orange and dimpled in appearance. They are accumulations of fat and cholesterol and are most commonly found in cockatiels and budgies (and they are more often found in females).
Learn MoreCommon conditions of pet ferrets include diarrhea, intestinal foreign bodies, parasites, heart disease, and various tumors. This handout outlines the causes, clinical signs, and treatment options for each of these conditions. Any variation from normal should be a cause for concern and should be immediately evaluated by your veterinarian.
Learn MoreThere are four major hormonal diseases in ferrets. This handout covers adrenal gland disease and diabetes mellitus. Adrenal gland disease occurs in a large number of ferrets in North America, while diabetes mellitus is a rare, but important problem.
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Malignant lymphoma (lymphosarcoma) and leukemia are among the most common malignancies seen in ferrets. Diagnosis may be made by fine needle aspiration or biopsy. For a dedicated owner with a compliant patient, surgery and/or treatment with chemotherapy is an option. Remission of lymphoma is possible with treatment in ferrets, but recurrence is common. Ferrets also commonly develop insulin-producing tumors of the pancreas that lower the ferret’s blood sugar and cause weakness, weight loss, lethargy, seizures, coma, and death. Insulinoma commonly spreads from the pancreas to the liver, so surgical removal of pancreatic insulinoma nodules may not be curative. Affected ferrets respond well for months to years to medical therapy with glucose-promoting drugs (prednisone) and anti-insulin drugs (diazoxide). Drugs suppress effects of the tumor but do not eliminate it; and ferrets on medical treatment must have their medications increased over time as the tumor grows.
Learn MoreHedgehogs have several unique problems Understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.
Learn MoreIguanas face several health problems that will need veterinary intervention for treatment or resolution. Cystic calculi, dystocia, avascular necrosis and dysecdysis are all common problems that will need medical attention sooner rather than later.
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Ectopic cilia can be an irritating eye problem for many dogs. Growing abnormally through the conjunctiva (the pink part of the eye), they come into contact with the cornea and can cause chronic discomfort to the eye and corneal ulceration. Surgery is necessary to help to correct the problem and help dogs live a more comfortable life. The prognosis for surgical correction of this condition is generally good.
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Ectropion, or outward rolling of the eyelid, can cause problems such as recurring conjunctivitis and drying out of the cornea. The clinical signs are a "sagging" or outward-rolling lower eyelid, although ectropion can affect any of the eyelids. A thick mucoid discharge often accumulates along the eyelid margin. Diagnosis is usually made on physical examination. Testing for hypothyroidism and for antibodies against certain muscle fibers may be done if looking for underlying causes. The treatment for mild ectropion generally consists of medical therapy; if the condition is severe, surgical correction can be performed to shorten the eyelids.
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Entropion, or rolling in of the eyelids, is seen in many breeds and is considered a hereditary disorder. Most dogs will squint, hold the eye shut, and tear excessively (epiphora), though some patients will develop a mucoid discharge. Entropion can cause additional eye problems, such as corneal ulcers, perforations, or development of pigment on the cornea interfering with vision and chronically irritating to the dog. Entropion is corrected with surgery.
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This handout discusses fragmented medial coronoid process (FMCP) in dogs, one of the causes of front limb lameness in young, larger breed dogs such as Bernese mountain dogs, golden retrievers, Labrador retrievers, rottweilers, and German shepherds. The clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of this condition are outlined.
Learn MoreDuring the summer months, pet rabbits allowed to run outdoors might be affected by a fly maggot infestation. Different terms are used for this but fly strike is a common one. Another is to say that the rabbit is fly blown.
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Foreign body obstruction is a common and potentially life-threatening condition in veterinary practice. Some foreign bodies pass through the intestinal tract, but if an obstruction occurs, surgical removal of the blocked object is the only treatment.
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A joint luxation is a dislocation or complete separation between the bones that normally move back and forth to form a joint. Subluxation is the term referring to a partial separation of the joint. The most commonly subluxated joints in dogs include the hip and elbow, although any joint can be affected. Your veterinarian may suspect a joint subluxation based on a history of trauma and physical examination findings such as pain and limping. A radiograph is necessary to definitively diagnose a joint subluxation. In many cases, the joint can be reduced or replaced to its original orientation by a procedure called a closed reduction, with a good prognosis if treated immediately. Surgical correction, however, may be needed.
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Laser surgery is a procedure that generates a beam of light energy at a specific wavelength, resulting in the cutting of tissues. There are advantages of laser surgery when compared to traditional stainless steel surgical scalpels, which are decreased pain, decreased inflammation, reduced blood loss, and improved tissue healing. Routine procedures such as ovariohysterectomy and castration are commonly done with laser.
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Common conditions of pet rodents include respiratory diseases, gastrointestinal problems, dental problems, and cancer. Diseases of the skin may cause itching, hair loss or flaky skin in rodents. All rodents have teeth that grow continuously throughout their lives. Occasionally, these teeth grow too long and cut into the gums, causing pain when eating. Cancer is often seen in pet rodents, especially mammary (breast) tumors in rats and mice. Rodents with signs of respiratory or GI disease or evidence of a tumor should be seen by a veterinarian who can properly diagnose and treat the underlying condition.
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Osteochondritis dissecans is an inflammatory condition that occurs when diseased cartilage separates from the underlying bone. It most commonly affects the shoulder joint but the elbow, hip, or knee (stifle) may also be involved. This is a developmental disease that occurs in rapidly growing large breed dogs typically between 6 and 9 months of age and tends to occur more often in male dogs. Dogs that are affected with OCD typically limp or are lame in the affected leg or legs. Several radiographs of each affected leg are necessary to get an accurate assessment of various bones and joints. Treatment may involve conservative medical management or surgical intervention.
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Turtles may be affected by any of the following conditions: metabolic bone disease (MBD), vitamin A deficiency, respiratory infections, abscesses, shell infections and fractures, and parasites. This article outlines typical signs and treatment for these common conditions. Seek immediate veterinary care if there is any deviation from normal in your pet turtle.
Learn MorePerianal fistula, also known as anal furunculosis is a serious medical condition that most commonly affects German Shepherd dogs. Perianal fistulas are characterized by chronic, purulent, smelly, ulcerating, sinus tracts in the anal region and surrounding skin. More recent studies indicate that the condition is more likely caused by an autoimmune disease. Medical management with immune-modulating drugs is now the preferred therapy. In severe cases, surgery is required to debride or remove as much infected tissue as possible.
Learn MoreMast cell tumors are one of the most common skin tumors in ferrets. These tumors are typically a small, raised growth on the skin that erupts, may bleed, then heal only to reoccur several weeks later in the same location. Unlike mast cell tumors in dogs, mast cell tumors in ferrets do not spread to internal organs.
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Turtles may be affected by one of the following diseases: metabolic bone disease (MBD), vitamin A deficiency, respiratory diseases, abscesses, shell infections, shell fractures, and parasites. Improper diet, poor water filtration, and lack of UV light are contributing factors for many aquatic turtle diseases. Seek immediate veterinary care if your aquatic turtle shows any deviation from normal.
Learn MoreTumors are cancerous growths. They may be found on the surface of a bird's body or in the internal organs. Veterinary examination of any growth or lump is highly advised as tumors may grow rapidly or spread.
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Distichiae can be an irritating eye problem for many dogs. The abnormally growing extra eyelashes can cause chronic discomfort to the eye and potential vision problems. A thorough eye examination is necessary to assess the extent of any accompanying corneal injury and to rule out other causes of the dog's clinical signs. Various treatment options are available. The prognosis is excellent for dogs that do not show any clinical signs associated with their distichiae. For dogs with mild clinical signs, the likelihood that the condition can be managed with conservative treatment is good.
Learn MoreBrachycephalic airway syndrome occurs in dogs that have anatomic abnormalities causing a more flat-faced appearance. These changes in anatomy cause restrictions in the dog's upper airways (including stenotic nares, elongated soft palate, nasopharyngeal turbinates, and hypoplastic trachea), and can eventually lead to everted laryngeal saccules and laryngeal collapse. Common signs of this condition are open mouth breathing and snoring, but can worsen, leading to exercise intolerance, coughing, gagging, or retching. Diagnosis of elongated soft palate, everted saccules and hypoplastic trachea requires deep sedation or general anesthesia. Dogs with this condition may require only corticosteroids, oxygen, and environmental management, but surgery to correct the palate, nares, and everted saccules may need to be performed. Prognosis is good to guarded depending on the severity of the disease but is greatly improved if the problem is noted and treated surgically in younger dogs.
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Brachycephalic airway syndrome refers to a particular set of upper airway abnormalities that affect brachycephalic cats. The most common sign of the condition is mouth breathing and, in the long term, the increased effort associated with breathing can put a strain on the cat's heart. Surgery is the treatment of choice whenever the anatomical abnormalities interfere with a cat’s breathing.
Learn MoreBandages and splints protect an injured or wounded area of the body. It is important to closely monitor your cat's bandage or splint to ensure it does not slip or become wet or soiled and to ensure there is no discharge or foul odors indicating infection. This handout explains optimal bandage and splint care for your cat at home as well as possible complications that will require veterinary attention.
Learn MoreBandages and splints protect an injured or wounded area of the body. It is important to closely monitor your dog’s bandage or splint to ensure it does not slip or become wet or soiled and to ensure there is no discharge or foul odors indicating infection. This handout explains optimal bandage and splint care for your dog at home as well as possible complications that will require veterinary attention.
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The general instructions for incision care are the same for all surgical incisions. There may be some differences, however, depending on the type of surgery and the material used to close the incision. This handout is a guide to caring for your cat's surgical incision(s) at home for optimal recovery.
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The general instructions for incision care are the same for all surgical incisions. There may be some differences, however, depending on the type of surgery and the material used to close the incision. This handout is a guide to caring for your cat's surgical incision(s) at home for optimal recovery.
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Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the pressure within the eye, called intraocular pressure (IOP), is increased. Glaucoma is caused by inadequate drainage of aqueous fluid. Glaucoma is classified as primary or secondary. High intraocular pressure causes damage to occur in the retina and the optic nerve. Blindness can occur very quickly unless the increased IOP is reduced. Analgesics to control the pain and medications that decrease fluid production and promote drainage are often prescribed to treat glaucoma. The prognosis depends to a degree upon the underlying cause of the glaucoma.
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Blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelid) can affect one or both eyes. The affected eyelid will usually be red, swollen, and itchy. Any condition that can cause irritation of the eyelids can lead to blepharitis. The numerous potential causes of this condition, along with the clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis are outlined in this handout.
Learn MoreThe patella connects the femur and the tibia and is normally located in a groove called the trochlear groove found at the end of the femur. A luxating patella is a kneecap that 'pops out' or moves out of its normal location. The patella will luxate or slip out of the groove during extension of the leg if the trochlear groove is too shallow, if the cat is bow-legged or cow-hocked, or if the point of attachment on the tibia is off-center. There are 4 grades of patellar luxation, and a higher grade means that the condition is more severe. Your veterinarian will diagnose a luxating patella by feeling the displaced kneecap during palpation of the leg. A luxating patella can be corrected surgically, especially if the patella luxates frequently. If your veterinarian performs surgery before arthritis or other knee injury occurs, the prognosis is excellent.
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Bite wounds are a common injury veterinarians see. If left alone, wounds have the potential to become more complicated, as they are likely infected and delaying treatment only makes it worse. Antibiotics, pain medications, and stitches may all be involved in the post-bite wound care.
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Struvite bladder stones are one of the more common bladder stones found in dogs. Struvite bladder stones usually form as a complication of a bladder infection caused by bacteria, and if the urine becomes exceptionally concentrated and acidic. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are blood in the urine (hematuria) and straining to urinate (dysuria). There are three primary treatment strategies for struvite bladder stones: 1) feeding a special diet to dissolve the stone(s), 2) non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion (flushing out the stones) and 3) surgical removal. Dogs that have experienced struvite bladder stones will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life.
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Cystine bladder stones appear to be the result of a genetic abnormality that prevents a dog from reabsorbing cystine from the kidneys. While bladder stones in general are somewhat common in dogs, cystine bladder stones are rare. Your veterinarian may be able to palpate the stones or may need to perform imaging studies such as a bladder ultrasound or a contrast radiographic study. There are two primary treatment strategies for treating cystine bladder stones in dogs: dietary therapy to dissolve the stones, or physical removal of the stones. Cystine stones have a high rate of recurrence, despite careful attention to diet and lifestyle.
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One of the more common uroliths in the dog is composed of calcium oxalate crystals. Current research indicates that acidic urine high in calcium, citrates, or oxalates predisposes a pet to developing calcium oxalate urinary crystals and stones. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are increased frequency of urination, painful urination, and blood in the urine. Male dogs are more commonly affected and may be at risk of a life-threatening urinary obstruction. Treatment options and prognosis are discussed.
Learn MoreThere are many health and behavioral benefits associated with spaying your rabbit, such as preventing unwanted pregnancies, reducing her risk for reproductive cancers, and minimizing the stress associated with sexual frustration. This handout explains the surgical procedure, post-operative care at home, and, although rare, possible complications that may occur.
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Penetrating wounds can look minor on the surface but may cause severe injury below the skin. A thorough assessment requires sedation or anesthesia and surgery may be required to address the extent of the injury. This handout outlines first aid steps a pet owner can take while transporting their injured pet to the veterinary hospital.
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Each surgical patient is unique, so pain management strategies are fine-tuned to meet the needs of the individual cat before, during, and after surgery. Your veterinarian will begin managing your cat's pain before the procedure starts by giving preemptive pain medication. During surgery, strategies such as local freezing, continuous rate infusions, and anesthetic blocks may be used. After surgery, pain relief continues, with at-home medication and possibly physical medicine modalities.
Learn MoreBurr tongue is the common name for burdock tongue (also called granular stomatitis or granulomatous glossitis) caused by ingestion of the burrs from the burdock plant. Burr tongue is most commonly seen in long-haired dogs when they accidentally traumatize their tongue and mouth on the burrs during grooming. The hooked scales of the burrs become embedded in the tongue and gums and cause an intense foreign body reaction. Affected dogs often have small red bumps on the tip and edges of their tongue, front of the lips and gums, and occasionally the base of the nose. Based on the severity of the condition, treatment ranges from letting the injuries heal on their own to administering antibiotics and pain medications, to surgical intervention.
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Pain management strategies are designed to meet the needs of the individual cat before, during, and after surgery. Your veterinarian will begin managing your cat's pain before the procedure starts by giving preemptive pain medication. During surgery, strategies such as local freezing, continuous rate infusions, and anesthetic blocks may be used. After surgery, pain relief continues, with at-home medication and possibly physical medicine modalities.
Learn MoreThere are many health and behavioral benefits associated with neutering your rabbit, such as preventing unwanted pregnancies, eliminating his risk for testicular cancer, and minimizing the stress associated with sexual frustration. This handout explains the neuter procedure, post-operative care at home, and, although rare, possible complications that could occur.
Learn MoreNeutering is also referred to as orchidectomy or castration. It is a surgical procedure in which the testicles are removed to sterilize or render a male animal infertile. There are many behavioral and health benefits associated with neutering your rat. Most rats are neutered between four and six months of age.
Learn MoreCryptorchidism is the failure of one or both testicles to descend into the scrotum. Some purebred cats are more at risk, but it can affect any cat and is believed to be an inherited trait. Diagnosis can usually be made by palpation but sometimes requires blood testing or abdominal ultrasound if the cat’s history is unknown. Risks of retained testicles include testicular cancer, spermatic cord torsion, and the development of undesirable male characteristics, so neutering is strongly recommended. Surgery is generally routine, and recovery is similar to any abdominal surgery.
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An ovariohysterectomy is often referred to as a spay or spaying. It is a surgical procedure in which the left and right ovary and both left and right horns of the uterus are removed completely, to sterilize or render a female animal infertile. Spaying minimizes the risk of ovarian, uterine, breast, and pituitary gland cancers in rats. Ideally, most rats are spayed between four and six months of age. Complications are rare, but there is a small risk associated with being anesthetized. Most rats will experience no adverse effects and spaying is generally recommended for all healthy, young rats to prevent future health problems.
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The traditional extracapsular lateral suture ECLS technique is the oldest surgical correction for cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) injury in dogs. The name of the procedure originates from the fact that the joint is stabilized outside the joint capsule (externally). CCL repair surgery typically begins with an initial examination of the inside of the knee. Both the traditional ECLS and the Tight Rope® procedures are considered extracapsular or external repairs of CCL injury. Both yield similar results with similarly low risks.
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One of the most common injuries to the knee of dogs is tearing of the cranial cruciate ligament (CCL). This ligament is similar to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in humans. There are actually two cruciate ligaments inside the knee: the cranial cruciate ligament and caudal cruciate ligament. They are called cruciate because they cross over each other inside the middle of the knee.
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Otitis interna is a serious condition that can cause significant signs in your dog, including reluctance to eat, head tilt, alteration in balance, and reduced hearing on the affected side. Treatment could involve long-term medication if the specific cause can be identified, such as bacterial or fungal infection. Less commonly, surgery may be needed. Many dogs will respond to treatment and recover well.
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Otitis interna is a serious condition that can cause significant signs in your cat, including drooling from the side of the mouth, difficulty eating, inability to blink, and drooping eyelids, lips, and nostrils on the affected side. Treatment may involve long-term medications if the underlying cause can be identified, such as bacterial or fungal infection. Less commonly, surgery may be needed. Many cats will respond to treatment and recover well.
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The hip joint is a ball and socket joint. The ball is at the top of the thigh bone (femur), and the socket (acetabulum) is in the pelvis. Total hip replacement surgery removes and replaces both the ball and socket with prostheses (artificial body parts). Before a total hip replacement, the dog usually has a thorough examination and a blood screening to prepare for general anesthesia. Post-surgery, the dog will spend 3 to 5 days in hospital. Approximately 90-95% of dogs with a total hip replacement do very well and have excellent post-surgical function.
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Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a heart defect that occurs when the ductus arteriosus (an opening between the aorta and the pulmonary artery) fails to close at birth. A PDA is usually diagnosed when your veterinarian hears a continuous heart murmur during a routine physical examination of your puppy. This article explains PDA and discusses signs, treatment, and prognosis for this condition.
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Brain injuries are devastating and, unfortunately, often fatal. The typical signs of brain injury in a dog include altered consciousness that may signal bleeding in the skull, decreased blood flow to the brain, or fluid causing swelling within the brain itself. There are many potential causes of brain injury and treatment will always be determined by the underlying problem that led to the injury.
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Ulcerative keratitis is a kind of inflammation that occurs in the cornea of the eye. Some breeds seem to develop them more commonly, particularly Himalayan, Persian, and Burmese cats. The signs of ulcerative keratitis depend somewhat on the cause and how long the condition has been present. There are many potential causes of ulcerative keratitis, including trauma, infection, and abnormal tear production. Antibiotic ointment or drops will be prescribed, and it is important to prevent additional trauma to the cornea. Superficial corneal ulcers typically heal within 5 to 7 days.
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Brain injuries are devastating and, unfortunately, often fatal. The typical signs of brain injury in a cat include altered consciousness that may signal bleeding in the skull, decreased blood flow to the brain, or fluid causing swelling within the brain itself. There are many potential causes of brain injury and treatment will always be determined by the underlying problem that led to the injury.
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Pneumothorax is an accumulation of air outside the lungs, but inside the chest wall. The air outside the lung prevents the lungs from inflating normally, and can lead to lung collapse. There are several variations of pneumothorax.
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Wobbler syndrome is a disease of the neck (the cervical spine) that is seen in large and giant breeds of dog. These dogs experience compression of the spinal cord and the spinal nerve roots, resulting in nervous system deficits and/or neck pain,
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Collie eye anomaly is an inherited, developmental disease in dogs. There is a mutation on the gene that determines the development of the eye, and this causes the blood vessels that support the retina to be underdeveloped, affecting vision.
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Juvenile hyperparathyroidism is a rare, inherited condition of German shepherds and leads to a constant state of elevated parathyroid hormone, affecting calcium and phosphorus balance within the body. It is an inherited, autosomal recessive trait that causes stunted growth. One to three of the parathyroid glands are removed to bring the calcium levels into a more normal range.
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Legg-Calve-Perthes disease is also known as avascular or aseptic necrosis of the femoral head. This is a condition in which the head of the femur (the 'ball' in the ball-and-socket joint that forms the hip) spontaneously begins to degenerate. Over time, this degeneration will cause collapse of the hip and lead to arthritis.
Learn MoreRarely, ovarian tissue can be left behind when a dog is spayed. This leads to the ongoing secretion of hormones such as estrogen and progesterone that can result in a dog continuing to have a heat cycle. Ovarian remnants are difficult to diagnose, but vaginal cytology combined with hormone testing can be used to confirm the presence of functional ovarian tissue. Surgical treatment is typically recommended to prevent other health conditions from developing.
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Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a heart defect that occurs when the ductus arteriosus (an opening between the aorta and the pulmonary artery) fails to close at birth. A PDA is usually diagnosed when your veterinarian hears a continuous heart murmur during a routine physical examination of your puppy. This article explains PDA and discusses signs, treatment, and prognosis for this condition.
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Porcupine quills can puncture the skin and move through muscle, ultimately penetrating into body cavities and internal organs. They contain barbs like fishhooks and tend to migrate inwards instead of being expelled. Do not cut quills or attempt to remove the quills yourself. Seek immediate veterinary care if your dog is quilled. Sedation or anesthesia is required to remove quills safely.
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A perineal urethrostomy (PU) is a surgical procedure that is most commonly performed on male cats with a urinary obstruction. Male cats develop urinary obstructions much more readily than female cats, due to differences in urinary tract anatomy between the two sexes. A PU creates a new urinary opening that decreases the length of the urethra and allows urine to bypass this narrowed region. Less commonly, PU may also be done in cats with severe urethral trauma. After surgery, your cat will be required to wear an Elizabethan collar (e-collar) to prevent self-trauma to the surgical site.
Learn MoreRarely, ovarian tissue can be left behind when a cat is spayed. This leads to the ongoing secretion of hormones such as estrogen and progesterone that can result in a cat continuing to have a heat cycle. Ovarian remnants are difficult to diagnose but vaginal cytology combined with hormone testing can be used to confirm the presence of functional ovarian tissue. Surgical treatment is typically recommended to prevent other health conditions from developing.
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One especially dangerous type of foreign body in cats is referred to as a linear foreign body. This term describes long, thin objects such as string, yarn, and tinsel. If one end of the linear foreign body becomes lodged in the gastrointestinal tract, intestinal perforation may occur. The most common signs of a linear foreign body include vomiting, anorexia (refusal to eat), dehydration, and lethargy. If your veterinarian suspects a linear foreign body, your cat will need an exploratory laparotomy.
Learn MoreThe term TECA-BO is an abbreviation for Total Ear Canal Ablation and Bulla Osteotomy. This surgery involves the complete removal of the ear canal and tympanic bulla (middle ear), leaving only the ear flap (pinna) remaining. It is recommended in cases of chronic, end-stage otitis (ear infections), in which medical treatment is no longer helping the patient.
Learn MoreAn FHO, or femoral head ostectomy, is a surgical procedure that aims to restore pain-free mobility to a diseased or damaged hip by removing the head and neck of the femur (the long leg bone or thighbone). This procedure is commonly recommended for cats, especially those who are at a healthy weight. Active cats often experience better results with FHO than less-active cats. It is important to follow your veterinarian's post-operative instructions. Most cats will show signs of complete recovery approximately six weeks post-operatively.
Learn MoreAn FHO, or femoral head ostectomy, is a surgical procedure that aims to restore pain-free mobility to a diseased or damaged hip by removing the head and neck of the femur (the long leg bone or thighbone). This procedure is commonly recommended for smaller dogs, especially those who are at a healthy weight. Active dogs often experience better results with FHO than less-active dogs. It is important to follow your veterinarian's post-operative instructions. Most dogs will show signs of complete recovery approximately six weeks post-operatively.
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A gastropexy is a surgical procedure that is sometimes performed in large-breed dogs to prevent gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV), also known as bloat – a life-threatening condition. This handout explains how the procedure works, how it is used preventatively and in emergency situations, risk factors, and post-operative care.
Learn MoreA Penrose drain is a latex tube that is placed into a wound with one or two ends exiting the skin, allowing fluids to drain from the wound. The Penrose drain is designed to passively remove unwanted fluid, usually when treating abscesses or open wounds. Drains should be removed as soon as possible, usually within 2-4 days. Larger wounds may take longer. Once the drain and all the sutures have been removed, your cat can return to normal activities unless directed otherwise by your veterinarian.
Learn MoreA Penrose drain is a latex tube that is placed into a wound with one or two ends exiting the skin, allowing fluids to drain from the wound. The Penrose drain is designed to passively remove unwanted fluid, usually when treating abscesses or open wounds. Drains should be removed as soon as possible, usually within 2-4 days. Larger wounds may take longer. Once the drain and all the sutures have been removed, your dog can return to normal activities unless directed otherwise by your veterinarian.
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Muscle tears are direct or indirect traumatic injuries that cause damage to the architecture of the muscle tissue. The most common cause is an indirect injury, or strain, caused by overstretching during athletic activities, such as running or jumping. Clinical signs of muscle tears include pain on palpation of the injured area, lameness or limping, swelling of the muscle, and/or bruising. Muscle tears are treated immediately with rest, cold compresses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation. In the most severe cases, surgery is likely required.
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Muscle tears are direct or indirect traumatic injuries that cause damage to the architecture of the muscle tissue. The most common cause is an indirect injury, or strain, caused by overstretching during athletic activities, such as running or jumping. Clinical signs of muscle tears include pain on palpation of the injured area, lameness or limping, swelling of the muscle, and/or bruising. Muscle tears are treated immediately with rest, cold compresses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation. In the most severe cases, surgery is likely required.
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The post-operative period is just as important as the surgery itself. Following the set instructions will help avoid complications and lead to a smoother recovery. Monitor the incision daily for signs of redness, swelling, discharge, or excessive licking. Consider using an Elizabethan collar to keep your cat from licking the incision site. Should you have any concerns, contact your veterinarian immediately.
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Vulvoplasty, also known as episioplasty, is a surgical procedure that your veterinarian may recommend to correct a conformational issue known as a recessed vulva. Your veterinarian will remove a crescent-shaped piece of tissue from above the vulva, allowing the skin to be pulled upwards into a more normal conformation. This procedure is performed under general anesthesia. Your pet will be intubated with an endotracheal tube. After surgery, you will need to give pain medications and antibiotics as directed and keep your dog confined/restricted for approximately two weeks. Skin sutures, if used, can typically be removed 10-14 days after surgery.
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One of the most common injuries to the knee in dogs is tearing of the cranial cruciate ligament (CCL). Several surgical techniques are currently used to correct CCL rupture. The TTA procedure is more commonly performed in dogs with a steep tibial plateau (angle of the top part of the tibia). Healing from TTA surgery is generally rapid and dogs resume normal activities quickly.
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One of the most common injuries to the knee in dogs is tearing of the cranial cruciate ligament (CCL). When the cranial cruciate ligament is torn, surgical stabilization of the knee joint is often required. The development of tibial plateau leveling osteotomy or TPLO was a major advancement in the treatment of CCL rupture. Healing from TPLO surgery is generally rapid, with the dog resuming normal activities quickly.
Learn MoreXanthine bladder stones are an uncommon type of urinary stone that can occur in both dogs and cats. Xanthine is produced when purines (a component of animal proteins) are broken down within the body. Most dogs can further break down xanthine into other substances that are easily excreted, but some dogs are deficient in an enzyme that is required for this breakdown to occur. These dogs develop elevated levels of xanthine in the urine, resulting in xanthine stones forming within the urinary tract. They can also form secondary to administration of a medication called Allopurinol. Xanthine urinary tract stones are typically removed surgically. Affected dogs require long-term care with specialized diets to prevent recurrence.
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Xanthine bladder stones are an uncommon type of urinary stone that can occur in both dogs and cats. Xanthine is produced when purines (a component of animal proteins) are broken down within the body. Most cats can further break down xanthine into other substances that are easily excreted, but some cats are deficient in an enzyme that is required for this breakdown to occur. These cats develop elevated levels of xanthine in the urine, resulting in xanthine stones forming within the urinary tract. Xanthine urinary tract stones are typically removed surgically. Affected cats require long-term care to prevent recurrence.
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A cataract is an increase in the opacity of the lens of the eye. There are many potential causes of cataracts because any type of damage to the lens can lead to a cataract. The clinical signs of cataracts vary significantly, depending on the size of the cataract; many cataracts are asymptomatic at the time they are diagnosed during a veterinary exam. The ideal treatment for cataracts is surgery, but not all cats are candidates for surgical treatment. In these cases, anti-inflammatory medications may be used to prevent glaucoma and other secondary complications of cataracts.
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This handout discusses arthroscopy, the insertion of a telescope-like camera into a joint. The joints commonly examined and treated using this technique, along with the benefits and risks of this procedure, are outlined.
Learn MoreBowel incontinence refers to the loss of the ability to control bowel movements. There are two broad causes of fecal incontinence: reservoir incontinence and sphincter incontinence. In reservoir incontinence, intestinal disease interferes with the rectum’s ability to store normal volumes of feces. In sphincter incontinence, a structural or neurologic lesion prevents the anal sphincter from closing normally. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and treatment vary based upon the underlying cause.
Learn MoreBowel incontinence refers to the loss of the ability to control bowel movements. There are two broad causes of fecal incontinence: reservoir incontinence and sphincter incontinence. In reservoir incontinence, intestinal disease interferes with the rectum’s ability to store normal volumes of feces. In sphincter incontinence, a structural or neurologic lesion prevents the anal sphincter from closing normally. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and treatment vary based upon the underlying cause.
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Oxalate bladder stones are composed of a mineral called calcium oxalate. Over the past 40 years the incidence over oxalate bladder stones has increased in cats. Cats are more likely to develop oxalate stones when their urine contains high levels of calcium and oxalate. In some cases, this is also associated with high blood calcium levels. Additionally, a low urine pH promotes the formation of oxalate stones. Bladder stones can cause significant inflammation and irritation of the bladder wall. Signs may include frequent urination, straining to urinate, blood in the urine, and urinating outside of the litterbox. Treatment of oxalate stones usually requires surgical removal, known as a cystotomy or less commonly may be removed via a process known as cystoscopy. Your cat will require ongoing management.
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Struvite bladder stones are one of the most common bladder stones in cats. In some cats, struvite bladder stones form as a result of a urinary tract infection. Signs of bladder stones typically include frequent urination, straining to urinate, blood in the urine, and urinating outside of the litterbox. If your cat is having urinary issues, your veterinarian will first recommend a urinalysis. Blood tests, abdominal radiographs, and ultrasound may also be recommended. Medical dissolution and surgical removal are two categories of treatment. Cats who have developed struvite bladder stones are likely to experience a recurrence later in life, unless the conditions that led to the formation of stones can be corrected.
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The main objectives of fracture repair are to promote rapid healing of the fracture and to get the dog using its leg as quickly as possible. In most cases, this involves rebuilding the broken bone and fixing it in that position with metallic implants. Post-operative care includes pain medications, antibiotics, adequate nutrition, exercise restriction, and physiotherapy. Most fractures can be repaired very effectively and in many cases, your dog will resume normal activity.
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The most common cause of hip dislocation is blunt force trauma such as a fall or an automobile injury. Most dogs with a hip dislocation will have severe hind limb lameness and pain and may not be able to put any weight on the affected limb. A diagnostic radiograph will show the direction of dislocation and whether a fracture of any part of the hip joint has occurred. In many cases, it is possible to replace the femoral head in the acetabulum by manipulation under general anesthesia. If the femoral head has been successfully replaced and the correct post-operative treatment has been adhered to, it is unlikely that the hip will dislocate again.
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An intussusception is a condition where part of the intestine slides into another part of the gastrointestinal tract. It causes signs similar to intestinal obstruction, including poor appetite and vomiting. Some cases can be life-threatening. Although some non-surgical techniques may correct the problem, most cases require surgery and intensive care for a good outcome.
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